The history of humanity has been shaped by a wide range of philosophical schools, movements, and ideologies that developed across various regions and eras. A systematic listing begins with early cultures and extends to the present. The following overview highlights central philosophical movements worldwide, organized by time and region:
Antiquity (-3000 – +500)
Egyptian Philosophy (-3000 – +300)
- Maat
- The concept of truth, justice, and cosmic order was central in Egyptian philosophy. Maat represented the universal order governing both social and natural life.
- Hermeticism
- A mystical and esoteric teaching, allegedly rooted in the Egyptian god Thoth. This philosophy later spread to Greece and influenced Neoplatonist and Gnostic thinkers.
Indian Philosophy (from -1500)
- Vedas
(-1500) - Early religious-philosophical texts that laid the foundation for later Hindu thought. They include hymns, rituals, and cosmological reflections.
- Upanishads
(from -800) - Philosophical texts dealing with metaphysics and the nature of the self (Atman) as well as the Absolute (Brahman).
- Jainism
(-6th century) - The teachings of Mahavira, based on non-violence (Ahimsa) and the idea of an endless cycle of birth and rebirth.
- Buddhism
(-6th century) - The teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), focusing on suffering and the path to enlightenment.
- Sāṃkhya
(-6th century) - A dualist philosophy about the nature of the universe, distinguishing between Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter).
- Yoga
(-4th century) - A philosophical system and practice of meditation, self-realization, and mental discipline.
- Vedanta
(-300) - A monistic philosophy based on the Upanishads, affirming Brahman as the ultimate reality.
Chinese Philosophy (-6th century – present)
- Confucianism
(-6th century) - An ethical and moral philosophy based on social relationships, respect, and political order. Confucius emphasized the importance of education and virtue in public life.
- Taoism
(-6th century) - The teachings of Laozi and Zhuangzi on natural balance (Dao) and the rejection of artificial societal norms, advocating a life in harmony with nature.
- Mohism
(-5th century – -3rd century) - The philosophy of Mozi, which emphasized universal love and utilitarianism. He argued that love for all people is the foundation for societal peace.
- Legalism
(-5th century – -3rd century) - Strict adherence to law and governance through a system of punishment and reward. Legalists believed that humans are naturally selfish and can only be disciplined through strict laws.
Greek Philosophy (-6th century – +6th century)
- Pre-Socratics
(-6th century – -5th century) - Early natural philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, and Democritus, who explored the origins of the cosmos and natural phenomena.
- Sophists
(-5th century) - Relativists and rhetoricians like Protagoras, who emphasized the importance of language and subjective truth. They questioned absolute truth and focused on the art of persuasion.
- Platonism
(-4th century) - Plato’s philosophy, based on the existence of eternal, unchanging ideas or forms. For Plato, the world of ideas was the true reality, while the material world was merely a shadow of it.
- Aristotelianism
(-4th century) - The philosophy of Aristotle, which is based on empirical observation and logic, particularly in ethics, metaphysics, and the natural sciences. Aristotle examined the nature of reality and the role of reason in human life.
- Cynicism
(-4th century) - An anti-materialist and ascetic philosophy, represented by Diogenes of Sinope, which emphasized simple living and the rejection of social conventions.
- Epicureanism
(-4th century – +3rd century) - The philosophy of Epicurus, which defined happiness as the absence of pain and the attainment of inner peace. Epicurus regarded pleasure as the highest good but warned against excessive indulgence.
- Stoicism
(-3rd century – +5th century) - The philosophy of Zeno of Citium, emphasizing tranquility and virtue in harmony with nature. Stoicism teaches acceptance of what cannot be controlled and the pursuit of a virtuous life.
Middle Ages (500 – 1500)
Christian Philosophy (1st century – present)
- Patristics
(2nd century – 8th century) - Early Christian philosophy of the Church Fathers, dealing with theological questions and defending Christianity against heresies. Important thinkers like Augustine of Hippo developed fundamental ideas on the relationship between faith and reason.
- Scholasticism
(9th century – 15th century) - Theological-philosophical synthesis, especially by Thomas Aquinas, based on Aristotle. Scholasticism aimed to reconcile faith and reason, addressing questions of metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.
Islamic Philosophy (8th century – 12th century)
- Kalām
(8th century) - Theological philosophy that dealt with the nature of God and the universe. Various schools, such as the Mu’tazila and Ashʿarīya, focused on topics like free will, divine omnipotence, and creation.
- Falsafa
(9th century – 12th century) - Greek-influenced philosophy in the Islamic world, represented by thinkers like Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. These philosophers addressed metaphysics, logic, ethics, and integrated Aristotelian thought with Islamic teachings.
Jewish Philosophy (9th century – 13th century)
- Maimonides
(1138 – 1204) - Integration of Aristotelian philosophy into Jewish theology. Maimonides emphasized the harmony between reason and faith, arguing that reason reveals the path to truth, with faith providing ultimate confirmation.
Early Modern Period (1500 – 1800)
- Renaissance Humanism
(14th – 16th century) - The rediscovery of ancient texts and the emphasis on human dignity and education. Humanists like Petrarch and Erasmus advocated for the promotion of arts and sciences, placing human abilities at the center of thought.
Enlightenment (17th – 18th century)
- Rationalism
(17th century) - A philosophical movement that considers reason as the main source of knowledge. Key figures like René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz argued that logical thinking and innate ideas form the basis of understanding.
- Empiricism
(17th – 18th century) - A counter-movement to rationalism, holding that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Major figures include John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
- Deism
(17th – 18th century) - A philosophical and religious doctrine that asserts God created the universe but does not interfere with its workings. Deists like Voltaire argued that reason and observation of nature support the belief in a creator god.
- Utilitarianism
(18th century) - An ethical theory that centers on the principle of the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed this philosophy, focusing on maximizing general welfare through moral actions.
Modern Era (1800 – present)
- German Idealism
(18th – 19th century) - Metaphysical systems by Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, viewing reason and consciousness as central to reality. These philosophers developed an understanding of an ideal, spiritual reality that transcends the physical world.
- Existentialism
(19th – 20th century) - A philosophical movement that sees humans as radically free and emphasizes individual responsibility for actions. Important figures include Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus.
- Marxism
(19th century) - A social theory by Karl Marx that considers economic class struggles as the driving force of history and advocates socialism. Marx’s teachings had a profound impact on political movements and the theory of communism.
- Phenomenology
(20th century) - A philosophy that explores direct experience and the structure of consciousness. Founders Edmund Husserl and his student Martin Heidegger influenced modern philosophy by examining how we directly perceive the world.
- Pragmatism
(19th – 20th century) - An American philosophy emphasizing the practical use of ideas. Key figures like Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey argued that the value of beliefs and theories should be measured by their usefulness in human life.
- Poststructuralism
(20th century) - A critical movement that deconstructs structures and power relations. Philosophers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida questioned the role of language, knowledge, and power in society, developing methods to analyze hidden power structures.
- Utilitarianism
(19th – 21st century) - A development of classical utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. More modern theories, such as Peter Singer’s preference utilitarianism, take individual preferences and well-being as the basis for moral decisions.
- Positivism
(19th century) - A philosophical movement focusing on empirical observations and the rejection of metaphysics. Auguste Comte and other positivists argued that only scientifically verifiable statements should be considered true.
- Social Darwinism
(19th – 20th century) - The application of Darwin’s theory of natural selection to social and political domains. Herbert Spencer and others justified social inequality with the notion of the “survival of the fittest.”
- Nihilism
(19th century – present) - A philosophy that emphasizes the absence of objective meaning, values, and order in the world. Friedrich Nietzsche is one of the key figures, whose idea of the “death of God” symbolized the breakdown of traditional values.
- Anarchism
(19th century – present) - A political and philosophical movement opposing state authority and advocating for a self-organized, voluntary society. Thinkers like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin were central in the development of these ideas.
- Neo-Kantianism
(19th century) - A return to Kant’s philosophy, focusing particularly on ethics and epistemology. Thinkers like Heinrich Rickert and Hermann Cohen were leading figures in this school, which was significant in 19th-century German philosophy.
- Marxism-Leninism
(20th century) - An extension of Marxism by Vladimir Lenin, emphasizing the revolutionary struggle of the working class and the necessity of a socialist state. This ideology became the foundation of Soviet communism.
- Logical Empiricism
(20th century) - A philosophical movement of the Vienna Circle, focusing on the verifiability of scientific statements and the use of formal scientific language. Key figures include Rudolf Carnap and Moritz Schlick.
- Critical Theory
(20th century) - A movement of the Frankfurt School that critically examined capitalism, authoritarianism, and the culture industry. Theorists like Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse analyzed social structures and power relations.
- Structuralism
(20th century) - An analysis of culture and society through the examination of underlying structures, particularly in linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure and Claude Lévi-Strauss were key figures in this movement.
- Postmodernism
(20th century) - A philosophical movement that challenges universal explanations and absolute truths. Thinkers like Jean-François Lyotard and Jean Baudrillard emphasize the plurality and fragmentation of knowledge and reality.
- Feminist Philosophy
(20th century – present) - A philosophical and political movement focusing on the analysis and dismantling of patriarchal structures. Central figures include Simone de Beauvoir, Judith Butler, and bell hooks.
- Ecological Philosophy
(20th century – present) - Philosophical approaches that focus on environmental ethics, the relationship between humans and nature, and sustainable action. Thinkers like Arne Næss and Aldo Leopold developed ideas on the moral obligation to preserve nature.
- Analytic Philosophy
(20th century – present) - A philosophical tradition emphasizing clear language and formal logic to analyze philosophical problems. Key figures include Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Willard Van Orman Quine.
- Postcolonialism
(20th century – present) - A movement that examines the cultural and political impacts of colonialism and critiques neocolonial power structures. Notable thinkers include Frantz Fanon and Edward Said.
- Virtue Ethics
(20th century) - A revival of Aristotelian ethics, which defines moral behavior through virtues and character strength. Key thinkers include Elizabeth Anscombe and Alasdair MacIntyre.
- Neoliberalism
(20th century – present) - An economic theory and political ideology advocating for free markets and privatization as the best means to achieve social and economic order. Key figures include Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman.
- Bioethics
(20th century – present) - A field that deals with ethical questions in medicine and biotechnology, such as genetic manipulation, abortion, and euthanasia. Key thinkers include Peter Singer and Tom L. Beauchamp.
- Neo-Marxism
(20th century – present) - A development of Marxism with influences from Critical Theory, psychoanalysis, and cultural criticism. Key figures include Antonio Gramsci, Herbert Marcuse, and Georg Lukács.
- Existential Psychology
(20th century – present) - Integration of existentialist thought into psychology, emphasizing the importance of authenticity, freedom, and human experience (Rollo May, Viktor Frankl).
Contemporary Philosophy (21st century)
- Constructivism
(21st century) - An epistemology that views knowledge as socially constructed. Constructivism plays a key role in philosophy of science and sociology, examining how social, cultural, and linguistic structures shape knowledge.
- Transhumanism
(21st century) - A philosophical movement that uses technological advances to extend and enhance human nature. Transhumanists like Nick Bostrom and Ray Kurzweil advocate for the use of technologies to extend life and enhance human capabilities.
- New Materialism
(21st century) - A school of thought that places material processes and relations at the center of philosophical analysis. New materialists like Karen Barad and Manuel DeLanda challenge traditional dualistic distinctions like mind and matter, emphasizing the entanglement of humans, nature, and technology.
- Speculative Realism
(21st century) - A movement that seeks to transcend the limits of classical epistemology and redefine the relationship between thought and being. Thinkers like Quentin Meillassoux and Graham Harman criticize “correlationism” and advocate for a philosophy that recognizes the independence of the world from human thought.
- Accelerationism
(21st century) - A philosophical movement that sees the acceleration of capitalist processes as a means to overcome capitalism and create new societal forms. Thinkers like Nick Srnicek and Alex Williams argue that technological advances should be harnessed to create a post-capitalist future.
- Metaethics and Normative Ethics
(21st century) - Metaethics explores the foundations of moral statements and their objectivity, while normative ethics continues and refines classical ethical systems (deontology, utilitarianism, virtue ethics) in light of new challenges such as AI and global justice.